The tide changed, however, when Philip formed an alliance with the French. Then in 1599 she placed Essex in command of a military force and sent him to Ireland to subdue Tyrone's Rebellion. other religious establishments of the Roman Catholic Church were also considered fiefs. The king also established completely new policies that would appeal to Spanish pride. Prince Henry the Navigator (13941460), a son of John I, founded a nautical school at Sagres, where he gathered the world' best navigators, mapmakers, geographers, and astronomers. Introduction. Soon after being crowned, she married Philip of Spain (soon to be King Philip II), but Parliament prevented him from taking the English throne along with his wife. Francis's reign had an impressive beginning. Finally, he became so obsessed by his rivalry with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V that he lost all sense of proportion, spending heavily on unsuccessful wars against Spain. By 1615, the Dutch possessed the Spice Islands and were forced to face the threat of the British East India Company. After the Portuguese defeated the Spanish in a war over the throne in 1385, John established a political alliance with England under the Treaty of Windsor (1386) that has endured to the present day. On the very day of Cromwell's death Henry married Catherine Howard (c. 15201542). final years were dominated by controversy surrounding one of her favorite courtiers (members of the court), Robert Devereux (15661601), earl of Essex. Although they appreciated his will to resist the mighty Spanish kingdom, they felt that Francis was committing heresy by allying with what Christians considered "infidel" Turks to slaughter fellow Christians. France and Germany were both once part of what Kingdom? The French king was not confined like most prisoners: He hunted regularly, enjoyed the companionship of his nobleman comrades, and attended numerous dinners given in his honor. 6,279 talking about this. One of his first acts was to execute 270 people who had been involved in the Comuneros revolt. In 1527 Henry began demanding a divorce from Catherine so he could marry Anne Boleyn (c. 15071536), an attendant in the court of Queen Claude of France. Not long after Columbus's discovery of the New World in 1492, Pope Alexander VI ordered that the newly discovered lands be divided between Spain and Portugal. The Spanish king, Ferdinand II of Aragon, had conquered and an nexed the small kingdom of Navarre, situated between France and Spain on the Bay of Biscay (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). The Castilian nobility were alarmed by this development because they knew a Spanish king would limit their power. Jews became highly influential in Spain from the tenth through the twelfth centuries, a period that is often called the "Golden Age" of Jewish history. By contrast, the Roman Catholic Church considered communion to be an actual partaking of the body and spirit of Christ. In expedition after expedition, Portuguese ships inched their way down the African coast. Francis died of gout and liver disease at Rambouillet, France, in 1547. in North America. When Francis swore as a gentleman to return to captivity if he failed to live up to his end of the bargain, Charles agreed to set him free. North and South America were later named for Vespucci. The following year, after extensive manipulation by his Habsburg advisers, Charles was elected as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (he was not officially crowned until 1530). Early in 1518 the eighteen-year-old Charles took the throne of Spain. and the southwestern United States. Finally, Henry acted on advice from his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell (c. 14851540), and simply announced that the pope had no authority in England. At various times these alliances involved the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, the Papal States (duchies in Italy controlled by the pope), and numerous Italian city-states, as well as mercenaries (hired soldiers) from other countries such as Switzerland. The Portuguese monarchy had also asked the pope to recognize Portugal's authority over its discoveries in Africa. Joanna retired to a castle in Tordesillas, where she mourned her deceased husband until her own death in 1555. Classical educations were provided to members of the ruling classes and the clergy, and scholars avidly studied ancient history. Charles spent his final years as an adviser to Philip, who soon earned the nickname of the "Prudent King" because he made decisions slowly and with great deliberation. First, he wanted to distribute taxes throughout the country and, second, he wanted to abolish privileges given to certain provinces. He set up a line of fortified outposts from the Persian Gulf all the way to the Malaccan Strait, the most They also wanted to end the use of wedding rings, which were believed to be popish because Catholics wore them. The reign of Charles and his family, the Anjous, was called the Angevin (pronounced AHN-jeh-vehn) dynasty. Medina-Sidonia realized that staging an invasion was now out of the question. Becoming the king of Bavaria in 825, Louis the German gradually extended his power over all of Carolingian Germany. After Boniface's death in 1303, Philip succeeded in having the seat of the papacy (office of the pope) moved from Rome, Italy, to Avignon, France. The policy of the French monarchy was to suppress Protestantism at home while supporting it abroad as a counterbalance to Habsburg power. Mary was a Catholic who had been driven from Scotland by Protestants. Although it was called the King James Bible, James himself had little to. When Richard of York was killed in 1460, his son, Edward (14421483), continued the campaign against the Lancasters. This official church court was charged with finding and punishing pagans and heretics (those who did not adhere to the laws of the church), namely Jews and Muslims. Although England was exhausted by the long conflict with France, the Tudor monarchs began a new dynasty after emerging victorious from the War of the Roses, a struggle between two families for the throne of England. In 1512, when France went to war with Spain, the king gave the eighteen-year-old Francis command of an army. 2. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, most ruled by royal families. In 1489 Charles VIII was offered the crown of Naples by Pope Innocent VIII (14321492; reigned 148492). Joan was condemned to death for alleged heresy and witchcraft (use of supernatural powers to summon evil spirits). In 1567 Philip introduced the Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands and sent Fernando lvarez de Toledo, duke of Alba (c. 15071582), to crush the revolt. In the 1300s the Catalans had been given the privilege of taxing themselves and voting subsidies (additional funds) for the crown only if they wanted to do so. In transforming the Bourbon kingdom into a constitutional state, the French Revolution aroused intense excitement east of the Rhine. LifeAfter. Shortly after the death of Henry V, Charles VII (14031461; ruled 142261), who was Charles VI's son, slowly began to regain French territories from the English. Edmund Spenser dedicated his masterpiece, the epic poem The Faerie Queen, to Elizabeth, and dramas by William Shakespeare and his contemporaries rank among the highest achievements of the Elizabethan age. The young boy learned the Spanish and Italian languages, and he spent his time reading mythology, history, and literature and admiring art. Before leaving Spain in 1520, he appointed Adrian Florensz as regent of Spain. Hotels are a thing in Sri Lanka too and they come in many flavours. In pursuit of the second he led France, in 1635, into the Thirty Years' War (16181648), a series of conflicts fought mainly in Germany over many social, political, and religious issues (see "Thirty Years' War" in Chapter 6). Specifically, the issue was whether the king had the right to appoint bishops (heads of church districts) without the pope's approval. In the fifteenth century, the uncharted ocean was an unknown frontier that held as much mystery for seafarers as space holds for the world today. Question 9. Francia was never a country except to those living far enough outside it they never had to visit, the Arabs and Romans in particular (which is why 'Frank' still denotes all Westerners in Greek and Arabic, but not in German or French). Leaders of both the nobility and the middle class feared that their property would be seized by government forces, so they had lost the motivation to champion their political cause. The Hundred Years' War was the outcome of disputes between the ruling families of England and France, the Plantagenets (pronounced plan-TAJ-eh-nets) in England and the Capetians (pronounced keh-PEE-shehns) in France. By that time Germanic tribes, called the Visigoths, had carved up Spain Only eight Portuguese were killed. Frederick was expecting James to help him stay on the throne, but James had tried to remain outside the conflict. But Medina-Sidonia made a fatal mistake on the night of August 7. The Iberians were followed by the Carthaginians. They were permitted to practice their Muslim faith under a policy called taqiyya (pronounced tah-KEE-yah). Henry was having a secret affair with Boleyn, and he hoped she might bear him a son. Pope Alexander VI (14311503; reigned 14921503) took the side of the Medicis and convinced King Ferdinand of Aragon to send in Spanish troops to fend off the Sforzas, the French, and the Swiss. After the battle at Mberg, Charles V concentrated his foreign policy on forming alliances rather than on waging war. The pound rose as much as 0.9pc to well above $1. He believed he had left to his son, King Philip III (15781621; ruled 15981621), a nation relatively free from international difficulties. Yet there was a darker side to the gallant French king. In 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas between these two countries moved the line farther west, to 370 leagues (about 988 miles, or 1,590 kilometers) west of the Cape Verde Islands. King Louis XII granted Francis the duchy of Valois, created from the vast estates of the house of Orlans. By the time of Henry VIII's death in 1547, most of the monastic land had been sold to noblemen and members of the gentry. In order to avenge the slight of not being named emperor, Francis initiated the first of five wars with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire (Charles was head of forces for both Spain and the empire). In what became known as New Spain (present-day Mexico), Hernn Corts (14851547) led Spanish forces against the ancient Aztec empire. He frequently attacked his father's ministers, including the duke of Alba, with a knife. Shortly after becoming king, Henry enacted a pro-Spanish and anti-French policy. For these reasons Henry VII was once considered England's first Renaissance ruler, and the English Renaissance was often dated to the beginning of his reign in 1485. In late 1520, Francis secretly backed an assault on Luxembourg He was not interested in intellectual affairs, though his mother, Margaret Beaufort (14431509), countess of Richmond and Derby, did provide patronage for The court paid small pensions (financial allowances for retired people) to the former monks and nuns, and larger ones to the former abbots and priors (heads of monasteries) who had cooperated in the closing of their houses. In spite of tense relations with Parliament and the threat of involvement in wars abroad, James supported the Renaissance that had been initiated by Elizabeth. But Essex botched the job miserably. John of Austria In 771, Charlemagne became king of the Franks, a Germanic tribe in present-day Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the . In 1356 French forces were defeated at Poitiers. Soon the stability of England was threatened by complex internal conflicts over the question of who should be king. After winning several major battles, the Moors conquered the Visigoth capital of Toledo in 712 and soon pushed the Germanic lords and their armies into the northern frontiers of Spain. Pope Clement VII joined Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England in the League of Co gnac, an alliance against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1553 she restored the Latin Mass and the following year she recognized the jurisdiction of the pope in England. Alba's repression continued unchecked, but by 1573 Philip had seen enough. (now in Belgium), a city in the Holy Roman Empire. Game Guide. Ten years later, France declared bankruptcy (a lack of funds to pay bills). The Waldensians were advocates of the views of Peter Waldo (also known as Pierre Valds; d. before 1218), an early French religious reformer who protested against corruption in the Catholic Church. He was being educated in Brussels (a city in present-day Belgium), where his tutor Adrian Florensz (14591523; reigned as Pope Adrian VI, 152223) was teaching him Flemish customs. The Genoan seafarer Christopher Columbus believed that the western route would actually be shorter. An able but somewhat colorless ruler, Henry succeeded in establishing the position of his new dynasty, increasing the efficiency of the government, and enhancing the wealth of the monarchy. Among them were Drake, John Hawkins (15321595), and Martin Frobisher (c. 15351594). In September 1519 the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan (c. 14801521), sponsored by King Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) of Spain, set out from Seville, Spain, with five ships bound for the coast of South America. In the 1300s he had left a record of his journeys to the faraway lands of China (then called Cathay), India, and the Spice Islands. 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